The Biotech On web is a blog for those student who are interested to make their career in food technology or biotechnology.Food technology is the study about food processing and their key terms,In food technology we know about various branches of food study.Today biotech is one of the most successful choice of science student. Many Universities offered course named "Food Chemistry".In my opinion food technology is okay for teaching purpose, but today many multinational company which deals in food product that offered job of successfully qualified in graduation (food chemistry) with handsome package.
This is recent branch of biology. Biology in relation to technology is called biotechnology or biotechnology is defined as application of living organisms or their processes in manufacturing industries.
Study of use of living and the substances produced due to their activites is called biotechnology.
Mostly micro-organisms are used in many industries as alcohol, enzymes, vaccines, vitamins, antibiotics, organic acids, etc. So, biotechnology is controlled use of microbes for benefits of human being. In this science, principles of biochemistry, molecular biology and microbiology are mostly used. Some important examples of biotechnology products are:
1. Alcohol: It is result of yeast fermentations, which is the incomplete oxidation of complex organic compounds with the help of enzyme produced by yeast (invertase and Zymase)
In the middle of the 19th century, Louis Pasteur reported that alcohol,beer and butter milk are the result of yeast fermentations .Yeast fermentations is the basis of baking as well as brewing industries, besides preparations of fermented foods like idli, dosa, etc. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly called baker's yeast or brewer's, is a saprophytic unicellular ascomycetes fungus growing on sugary solution.
Some other common products of yeast fermentations are:
Beer - It is produced from Hordeum vulgare (barley) malt and alcohol content is 4-8%.
Wine: Produced from grapes by fermentations and alcohol content is 10%- 20 %
Brandy :- Produced by distillation of wine and alcohol content is 43% - 57%.
Gin: Produced from fermented European rye, i.e, Secale cereale.
Rum : Produced from molasses of sugarcane and alcohol content is 40%.
Thus the type of the alcohol depends upon medium and agent causing fermentations. The species involved in above case are: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. ellipsoides, etc.
2. Organic acids: Some organic acids are produced by fermentation caused by fungi and bacteria.Some important are:
a. Lactic acids: Produced by fermentation of corn starch, molasses, potato, whey, etc, by Lactobacillus bulgaricus, L. delbrueckii and streptococcus lactis.
b. Acetic acids(Vinegar ): Produced by two step fermentation of sugarcane juice by yeast and Acetobacter aceti bacteria.
c. Citric acid: Produced by aerobic fermentations of sucrose in beet molasses by Aspergillus niger fungus.
d. Gluconic acid: Produced during oxidation of glucose by fungi like Aspergillus, penicillium, Mucor, etc.
e. Fumaric acid : Produced from sugar by activity of Rhizopus nigricans (bread mould)
3. Enzymes: The term 'enzyme' was first of all used by William Kuhne (meaning----in yeast). Enzymes are the organic substances which enhance the rate of biochemical reactions (without themselves undergoing any change). Enzyme can also be used outside the cell to catalyse some specific biochemical reactions to manufacture many industrial products. Out of total over 2200 enzymes known today,only a few are used in industries, medicines and food which are as follows.
a. Proteases or proteolytic enzymes: obtained from Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus subtilis and are used in detergents to remove some proteinaceous stains on clothes.
b. Amylases: Obtained from Bacillus subtilis. Aspergillus niger.A oryzae, etc. and are used in beer and bread making. Also used for softening starched clothes.
c. TPA (Tissue plasminogen activator): This enzyme is specifically used in heart patients to dissolve blood clots.
d.papain: This protein digesting enzyme obtained latex of papaya,is used for making meat tender.
e. Lactase: Obtained Saccharomyces fragilis and Torula cremori andused for making cheese from pasteurized milk and also for preventing lactose crystals in ice-cream.
f. Invertase: Obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisae and is used to prevent sandliness in diary products.
g. Thrombin: obtained from beef plasma and used for blood clotting in surgical operations.
h. Renin (Rennet) : Danish chemist Christian Hensen (1874) first obtained it from calf stomach and used for cheese formation
i. Pectinases: Obtained from Asper gillus lucherisis and used for destruction of penicillin action.
j. Cellulase: Obtained from Myrothecium verrucaria and used in production of dextrin and fructose.
Enzymes are more fragile than inorganic catalysts.Further these are more expensive and are rapidly deactivated at high temperatures.Stabilisation of enjymesis done by enzyme immobilization,which is done by fixing it to solid support,entrapping in a gel,cross-linking the enzyme molecules or by encapsulation of enzymes in small artificial cells.This immobilisation protects enzymes against attack by proteases.Further immobilizsed enzymes can be easily separated from reaction mixture at the end of reaction and then can be reused.
4.Vitamines:Vitamines are the organic compounds,provided to the body with diet and are required for some biochemical processes in very small amounts.Vitamines were discovered by C.FUNK(1911) and different types of diseases
(like beri-2,scurvy,rickets,night blindness,etc)are produced as a result of vitamines deficiency.Some microbes are good source of vitamines and the first microbiologically produced vitamin are vitamin c (ascorbic acid) during this fermentaion with a wild strain of bacteria (by Gyorgy).After this different microbes are being exploited for commercial production of different vitamines.Some important examples of microbes-produced vitamines are:
a.Riboflavin:(vit.B2):It is synthesised for industrial purposes by fermentation with a filamentous yeast, Ashbya, gossypii. The main sources of vit. B2 are cereals, yeast, leafy vegetables,milk,etc. It is precursor of FMN and FAD, which act as coenzymes for dehydrogenases enzymes.
b.Cobalamine (vit. B2): This vitamin is of animal protein origin like liver, meat, fish. It is not present in vegetarian diet and its deficiency causes pernicious anaemia. Now a days this vitamin is being produced by fermentation using Pseudomonas denitrificans, Bacillus coagulans, B.megatherium and propionic acid bacteria, i.e., Propionibacteria.
c. Precursor of vitamin A, i.e carotene is produced by fermentation using Blakslea trispora.
d. Precursor of vitamin C, i.e. L - sorbose by Glucanobacter oxidans.
5. Antibiotics: These are the substances of microbial origin and having antimicrobial activity or these are the chemical substances secreted by one micro-organisms, which inhibit or check the growth of other micro organisms.First antibiotic discovered was penicillin(wonder drug), from penicillium notatum by sir Alexander Fleming (1928) However, the term 'antibiotic' was given by waksman (1942). Waksman himself discovered two antobiotics i.e, Actinomycin (1941) and Streptomycin (1942) . Main sources of antibiotics are fungi,
bacteria and actinomycetes and about 7,000 antibiotics are known at this time. There are two main groups of antibiotics.
a. Broad spectrum antibiotics are those which inhibit the growth of many pathogenic species, differing from one another in their structure.
b.Narrow spectrum antibiotics are those antibiotics which inhibit the growth of a specific pathagenic species.
Different antibiotics have different modes of action, e.g., by destruction of cell membrane, inhibition of cell wall synthesis or checking protein synthesis or inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis.
Common antibiotics are penicillin . streptomycin, Terramycin, Aureomycin, Chloromycetin or Chloramphinicol, Griseofulvin, Neomycin, Erythromycin, Polymyxin, Subtelin, etc.
Streptomyces griseus strains are known to be producers of 32 different structural types of bioactive compounds (antibiotics)
Antibiotic of algal origin is Chlorellin and of lichen origin is Usnic acid.
6. Yoghurt: It is a special diet, which is prepared by fermentations of concentrated milk first with Lactobacillus bulgaricus and streptococcus thermophillus at 40-46 degree C for 4 hrs. and then fermentations with yeast.
7.Gibberellins: This plant growth hormone or phytohormone is obtained from a fungus called Fusarium moniliformae (or Giberella fujikuroi). This was isolated by Yabuta and Sumuki (1939). At this time, over 52 gibberellins have been discovered from different plants.
8.Steriods: Steriods are molecular weight fatty compounds, which are having one 5-carbon ring and three 6-carbon rings. Steriods are of wide distribution in both plants and animals . Chlolesterol is one of the most important steriods of animals, which is a precursor of animal hormones (steriods hormones) like progesterone and estrogen (female sex hormones) and testosterone (male sex hormone).
Progesterone is precursor of 4 different useful steriods and the micro-organisms used in this conversion are Rhizopus arrhizus, R. Stolonifer (R. nigricans), Curvularia lunata (all fungi) and a bacterium streptomyces argenteolus.
9. Insulin: Insulin is a hormone of protein nature (51 amino acids),made of 2 polypeptide chains having 21 and 30 amino acids respectively and joined by disulphide nonds. This hormone is produced be cells of 'Islands of Langerhans' of pancreas and is responsible for controlling blood sugar level. Deficiency of this insulin leads to a disease called diabetes mellitus. Insulin supplied from outside can cure this disease.
Banting and Best(1921) first of all isolated insulin from dog's pancreas and used it for curing diabetes patients, Insulin is now obtained from pancreas of slaughtered pigs and cattle.This insulin slightly differs from man's insulin and effectively controls diabetes.
By using genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology, insulin producing genes from human beings have been transferred into E. coli bacteria, which produce insulin called 'Humuline' for clinical use. This type of synthetic insulin was produced by an American pharmaceutical frim Eli-Lily on july 5, 1983.
10. Interferons: Interferons (antiviral proteins) were produced by Charles Weismann of Zurich University through recombinant DNA technology in E.coli in 1980.
11.Monoclonal antibodies: Antibodies are the specialized proteins, which are produced inside the host body in response to foreign substances called antigens (mostly protein or polysaccharides) and provides immunity to the host against antigens. Antibodies are produced in Lymph nodes, spleen and liver.
Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) are the specialized antibodies, which are specific to only one type of antigens. The concept of monoclonal antobodies was put forward by georges Kohler and Cesal Milstein in 1974 and these antibodies are produced outside the body by hybrid cell culture technique, known as Hybridoma technology. For this technology, Kohler and Milstein were awarded Nobel Prize in 1984.
In this technique, the antigens (against which antibodies are needed ) are injected into rat is removed and from spleen, some lymphocytes (which are responsible for antibody production) are isolated. These lymphocytes are mixed with myeloma cells (tumour cells isolated from cancer of bone marrow). Some of these lymphocytes and myeloma cells fuse together to form hybridoma cells (by somatogamous fusion). These hybridoma cells have capacity of antibody production (of lymphocytes) and rapid cell division (of cancer cells). These hybridoma cells in cultural conditions produce large quantities of specific and pure (monoclonal) antobodies, which are separated and used in cure of different diseases.
12. Vaccines: Production of antibodies against antigens, is the basis of immunity. Vaccine in fact is dilute dose (suspension) of antigens, which is used for developing artificial or acquired immunity . The process of inoculation of vaccine is known as vaccination and Louis pasteur (1850) is responsible for understanding the basis of vaccination and immunization. (Edward Jenner 1970, however made earlier studies in relation to small pox). A vaccine contains either weakened (polio, smallpox and measles vaccines)or even killed pathogens( typhoid vaccine ) which have still antigens to induce antibody production. In some cases (like botulism and tetanus), toxins produced by pathogens serve as vaccines . A lare number of vaccines (called first generation vaccines) against different viral and bacterial diseases have been produced.
In recent years, some new vaccines called second generations and third generations vaccines have been developed . Second generations vaccines are those, which are produced by recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering . e.g., vaccine for herpes virus and Hepatitis B. Third generations vaccines are produced synthetically or are synthesized vaccines, e.g., for feline leukemia virus and foot and mouth diseases virus.
13. Amino acids : An important basic amino acid, lysine is produced from diaminopimelic acid. (constituent of cell wall of bacteria, e.g., E.coli by activity of bacterium Enterobacter
15. Some other food products : Cheese is produced by activity of different species of lactobacillus and Streptococcus.
Penicillium camembertii and P. roquefortii are used to give flavour to cheese (camembert cheese and roquefort cheese).
Similiarly, butter is produced from cream by activity of streptococcus lactis and Leuconostoc species.
15.Dextran : Sucrose by activity of Leuconostoc mesenteroides bacteria, gives rise to a complex polysaccharide called dextran, which is used in plasma tranfusions.
16. Cholesterol lowering statins: Monascus purpureus (red yeast ) is a species of mould that is purplish red in colour and is known by the names ang-khak rice mould, corn silage mould, maize silage mould, and rice kernel discoloration. This fungus is most important because of its use in the form of red yeast rice and in the production of certain fermented foods in china. However, discovery of production of cholesterol statins bythe mould has prompted research into its possible medical uses. It produces a number of statins. The naturally occuring lovastatins and analogues are monacolins K, L,J and also occur in their hydroxyl acid forms alongwith dehydroxymonacolin and compactin (mevastatin).The prescription drug lovastatin, identical to monacolin K, is the principal statin produced by Monascus purpureus.
17. Tissue cultue: This is also a latest method of crop improvement. Besides also used in manufacture of antibodies, alkaloids, and dyes (like shikonin, a red dye used in silk industry and in treatment of burns is obtained from culture of cells of lithospermum root)
18. Single cell proteins (SCP): This terms was first used in 1966. But this term is misleading now a days because it denotes not only the isolated cell protein but it is used for any microbial biomass from uni-multi-cellular bacteri, yeast, algae or filamentous fungi which can be used as food or food additives. In general, microbial biomass contains 45-55 % protein, though in some bacteria, upto 80% protein content present, Large scale production of microbial biomass (SCP) has advantages over traditional methods of producing proteins as microbes have high rate of multiplicationm, have high protein content, can utilize large number of different carbon sources (waste products also) and microbial biomass production is independent od seasonal and climatic variation. Most commonly used microbes are Spirulina (blue green alga), Chlorella (green alga), Saccharomycopsis) lipolytica (fungus), mushrooms, etc.
Methlophilus methylotrophus bacteria have been investigated for use in single cell protein production. These bacteria have a generation time of about 2 hours and mainly used in animal feed as bacteria, in general produce a more favourable protein composition than yeast or fungi. Therefore, the large quantities of SCP animal feed using bacteria. The resulting product appears pinkish white, is odourless, tasteless and non-toxic which consists of about 65-75% protein of balanced amino acids composition.
Probiotics are live microorganism thought to be beneficial to the host organism. This term has been derived from latin ('pro -for+ biotics, derived from noun 'Bios-Life). According to currently adopted definitions by FAO/WHO, probiotics are live microorganism which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefits onthe host. Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria are the most common types of microbes used as probiotics, but certain yeasts and bacilli may also be helpful. Probiotics are commonly consumed as part of fermented foods with specially added active live cultures; such as yoghurt, soyyohurt or as dietary supplements. At the start of 20th century, probiotics were thought to beneficially affect the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance, thus inhibiting pathogens and toxins producing bacteria.
19.Sewage treatment and methane production using microbial systems: Conventional sewage treatement involves the use of the naturally developing micro-organisms within the sewage treatement system. Now a days the sewage is onoculated with a specific micro organisms, specially selected for that particular sewage treatement process. These organisms are called ' Starter cultures'
A strain of Pseudomonas putida containing plasmids has been developed, which degrade octane, xylene, metaxylene and camphor.
Methane is produced during anaerobic decomposition of sewage and other organic wastes by bacterias. The methane is collected and used as fuel in many countries.
This is recent branch of biology. Biology in relation to technology is called biotechnology or biotechnology is defined as application of living organisms or their processes in manufacturing industries.
Study of use of living and the substances produced due to their activites is called biotechnology.
Mostly micro-organisms are used in many industries as alcohol, enzymes, vaccines, vitamins, antibiotics, organic acids, etc. So, biotechnology is controlled use of microbes for benefits of human being. In this science, principles of biochemistry, molecular biology and microbiology are mostly used. Some important examples of biotechnology products are:
1. Alcohol: It is result of yeast fermentations, which is the incomplete oxidation of complex organic compounds with the help of enzyme produced by yeast (invertase and Zymase)
In the middle of the 19th century, Louis Pasteur reported that alcohol,beer and butter milk are the result of yeast fermentations .Yeast fermentations is the basis of baking as well as brewing industries, besides preparations of fermented foods like idli, dosa, etc. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly called baker's yeast or brewer's, is a saprophytic unicellular ascomycetes fungus growing on sugary solution.
Some other common products of yeast fermentations are:
Beer - It is produced from Hordeum vulgare (barley) malt and alcohol content is 4-8%.
Wine: Produced from grapes by fermentations and alcohol content is 10%- 20 %
Brandy :- Produced by distillation of wine and alcohol content is 43% - 57%.
Gin: Produced from fermented European rye, i.e, Secale cereale.
Rum : Produced from molasses of sugarcane and alcohol content is 40%.
Thus the type of the alcohol depends upon medium and agent causing fermentations. The species involved in above case are: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. ellipsoides, etc.
2. Organic acids: Some organic acids are produced by fermentation caused by fungi and bacteria.Some important are:
a. Lactic acids: Produced by fermentation of corn starch, molasses, potato, whey, etc, by Lactobacillus bulgaricus, L. delbrueckii and streptococcus lactis.
b. Acetic acids(Vinegar ): Produced by two step fermentation of sugarcane juice by yeast and Acetobacter aceti bacteria.
c. Citric acid: Produced by aerobic fermentations of sucrose in beet molasses by Aspergillus niger fungus.
d. Gluconic acid: Produced during oxidation of glucose by fungi like Aspergillus, penicillium, Mucor, etc.
e. Fumaric acid : Produced from sugar by activity of Rhizopus nigricans (bread mould)
3. Enzymes: The term 'enzyme' was first of all used by William Kuhne (meaning----in yeast). Enzymes are the organic substances which enhance the rate of biochemical reactions (without themselves undergoing any change). Enzyme can also be used outside the cell to catalyse some specific biochemical reactions to manufacture many industrial products. Out of total over 2200 enzymes known today,only a few are used in industries, medicines and food which are as follows.
a. Proteases or proteolytic enzymes: obtained from Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus subtilis and are used in detergents to remove some proteinaceous stains on clothes.
b. Amylases: Obtained from Bacillus subtilis. Aspergillus niger.A oryzae, etc. and are used in beer and bread making. Also used for softening starched clothes.
c. TPA (Tissue plasminogen activator): This enzyme is specifically used in heart patients to dissolve blood clots.
d.papain: This protein digesting enzyme obtained latex of papaya,is used for making meat tender.
e. Lactase: Obtained Saccharomyces fragilis and Torula cremori andused for making cheese from pasteurized milk and also for preventing lactose crystals in ice-cream.
f. Invertase: Obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisae and is used to prevent sandliness in diary products.
g. Thrombin: obtained from beef plasma and used for blood clotting in surgical operations.
h. Renin (Rennet) : Danish chemist Christian Hensen (1874) first obtained it from calf stomach and used for cheese formation
i. Pectinases: Obtained from Asper gillus lucherisis and used for destruction of penicillin action.
j. Cellulase: Obtained from Myrothecium verrucaria and used in production of dextrin and fructose.
Enzymes are more fragile than inorganic catalysts.Further these are more expensive and are rapidly deactivated at high temperatures.Stabilisation of enjymesis done by enzyme immobilization,which is done by fixing it to solid support,entrapping in a gel,cross-linking the enzyme molecules or by encapsulation of enzymes in small artificial cells.This immobilisation protects enzymes against attack by proteases.Further immobilizsed enzymes can be easily separated from reaction mixture at the end of reaction and then can be reused.
4.Vitamines:Vitamines are the organic compounds,provided to the body with diet and are required for some biochemical processes in very small amounts.Vitamines were discovered by C.FUNK(1911) and different types of diseases
(like beri-2,scurvy,rickets,night blindness,etc)are produced as a result of vitamines deficiency.Some microbes are good source of vitamines and the first microbiologically produced vitamin are vitamin c (ascorbic acid) during this fermentaion with a wild strain of bacteria (by Gyorgy).After this different microbes are being exploited for commercial production of different vitamines.Some important examples of microbes-produced vitamines are:
a.Riboflavin:(vit.B2):It is synthesised for industrial purposes by fermentation with a filamentous yeast, Ashbya, gossypii. The main sources of vit. B2 are cereals, yeast, leafy vegetables,milk,etc. It is precursor of FMN and FAD, which act as coenzymes for dehydrogenases enzymes.
b.Cobalamine (vit. B2): This vitamin is of animal protein origin like liver, meat, fish. It is not present in vegetarian diet and its deficiency causes pernicious anaemia. Now a days this vitamin is being produced by fermentation using Pseudomonas denitrificans, Bacillus coagulans, B.megatherium and propionic acid bacteria, i.e., Propionibacteria.
c. Precursor of vitamin A, i.e carotene is produced by fermentation using Blakslea trispora.
d. Precursor of vitamin C, i.e. L - sorbose by Glucanobacter oxidans.
5. Antibiotics: These are the substances of microbial origin and having antimicrobial activity or these are the chemical substances secreted by one micro-organisms, which inhibit or check the growth of other micro organisms.First antibiotic discovered was penicillin(wonder drug), from penicillium notatum by sir Alexander Fleming (1928) However, the term 'antibiotic' was given by waksman (1942). Waksman himself discovered two antobiotics i.e, Actinomycin (1941) and Streptomycin (1942) . Main sources of antibiotics are fungi,
bacteria and actinomycetes and about 7,000 antibiotics are known at this time. There are two main groups of antibiotics.
a. Broad spectrum antibiotics are those which inhibit the growth of many pathogenic species, differing from one another in their structure.
b.Narrow spectrum antibiotics are those antibiotics which inhibit the growth of a specific pathagenic species.
Different antibiotics have different modes of action, e.g., by destruction of cell membrane, inhibition of cell wall synthesis or checking protein synthesis or inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis.
Common antibiotics are penicillin . streptomycin, Terramycin, Aureomycin, Chloromycetin or Chloramphinicol, Griseofulvin, Neomycin, Erythromycin, Polymyxin, Subtelin, etc.
Streptomyces griseus strains are known to be producers of 32 different structural types of bioactive compounds (antibiotics)
Antibiotic of algal origin is Chlorellin and of lichen origin is Usnic acid.
6. Yoghurt: It is a special diet, which is prepared by fermentations of concentrated milk first with Lactobacillus bulgaricus and streptococcus thermophillus at 40-46 degree C for 4 hrs. and then fermentations with yeast.
7.Gibberellins: This plant growth hormone or phytohormone is obtained from a fungus called Fusarium moniliformae (or Giberella fujikuroi). This was isolated by Yabuta and Sumuki (1939). At this time, over 52 gibberellins have been discovered from different plants.
8.Steriods: Steriods are molecular weight fatty compounds, which are having one 5-carbon ring and three 6-carbon rings. Steriods are of wide distribution in both plants and animals . Chlolesterol is one of the most important steriods of animals, which is a precursor of animal hormones (steriods hormones) like progesterone and estrogen (female sex hormones) and testosterone (male sex hormone).
Progesterone is precursor of 4 different useful steriods and the micro-organisms used in this conversion are Rhizopus arrhizus, R. Stolonifer (R. nigricans), Curvularia lunata (all fungi) and a bacterium streptomyces argenteolus.
9. Insulin: Insulin is a hormone of protein nature (51 amino acids),made of 2 polypeptide chains having 21 and 30 amino acids respectively and joined by disulphide nonds. This hormone is produced be cells of 'Islands of Langerhans' of pancreas and is responsible for controlling blood sugar level. Deficiency of this insulin leads to a disease called diabetes mellitus. Insulin supplied from outside can cure this disease.
Banting and Best(1921) first of all isolated insulin from dog's pancreas and used it for curing diabetes patients, Insulin is now obtained from pancreas of slaughtered pigs and cattle.This insulin slightly differs from man's insulin and effectively controls diabetes.
By using genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology, insulin producing genes from human beings have been transferred into E. coli bacteria, which produce insulin called 'Humuline' for clinical use. This type of synthetic insulin was produced by an American pharmaceutical frim Eli-Lily on july 5, 1983.
10. Interferons: Interferons (antiviral proteins) were produced by Charles Weismann of Zurich University through recombinant DNA technology in E.coli in 1980.
11.Monoclonal antibodies: Antibodies are the specialized proteins, which are produced inside the host body in response to foreign substances called antigens (mostly protein or polysaccharides) and provides immunity to the host against antigens. Antibodies are produced in Lymph nodes, spleen and liver.
Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) are the specialized antibodies, which are specific to only one type of antigens. The concept of monoclonal antobodies was put forward by georges Kohler and Cesal Milstein in 1974 and these antibodies are produced outside the body by hybrid cell culture technique, known as Hybridoma technology. For this technology, Kohler and Milstein were awarded Nobel Prize in 1984.
In this technique, the antigens (against which antibodies are needed ) are injected into rat is removed and from spleen, some lymphocytes (which are responsible for antibody production) are isolated. These lymphocytes are mixed with myeloma cells (tumour cells isolated from cancer of bone marrow). Some of these lymphocytes and myeloma cells fuse together to form hybridoma cells (by somatogamous fusion). These hybridoma cells have capacity of antibody production (of lymphocytes) and rapid cell division (of cancer cells). These hybridoma cells in cultural conditions produce large quantities of specific and pure (monoclonal) antobodies, which are separated and used in cure of different diseases.
12. Vaccines: Production of antibodies against antigens, is the basis of immunity. Vaccine in fact is dilute dose (suspension) of antigens, which is used for developing artificial or acquired immunity . The process of inoculation of vaccine is known as vaccination and Louis pasteur (1850) is responsible for understanding the basis of vaccination and immunization. (Edward Jenner 1970, however made earlier studies in relation to small pox). A vaccine contains either weakened (polio, smallpox and measles vaccines)or even killed pathogens( typhoid vaccine ) which have still antigens to induce antibody production. In some cases (like botulism and tetanus), toxins produced by pathogens serve as vaccines . A lare number of vaccines (called first generation vaccines) against different viral and bacterial diseases have been produced.
In recent years, some new vaccines called second generations and third generations vaccines have been developed . Second generations vaccines are those, which are produced by recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering . e.g., vaccine for herpes virus and Hepatitis B. Third generations vaccines are produced synthetically or are synthesized vaccines, e.g., for feline leukemia virus and foot and mouth diseases virus.
13. Amino acids : An important basic amino acid, lysine is produced from diaminopimelic acid. (constituent of cell wall of bacteria, e.g., E.coli by activity of bacterium Enterobacter
15. Some other food products : Cheese is produced by activity of different species of lactobacillus and Streptococcus.
Penicillium camembertii and P. roquefortii are used to give flavour to cheese (camembert cheese and roquefort cheese).
Similiarly, butter is produced from cream by activity of streptococcus lactis and Leuconostoc species.
15.Dextran : Sucrose by activity of Leuconostoc mesenteroides bacteria, gives rise to a complex polysaccharide called dextran, which is used in plasma tranfusions.
16. Cholesterol lowering statins: Monascus purpureus (red yeast ) is a species of mould that is purplish red in colour and is known by the names ang-khak rice mould, corn silage mould, maize silage mould, and rice kernel discoloration. This fungus is most important because of its use in the form of red yeast rice and in the production of certain fermented foods in china. However, discovery of production of cholesterol statins bythe mould has prompted research into its possible medical uses. It produces a number of statins. The naturally occuring lovastatins and analogues are monacolins K, L,J and also occur in their hydroxyl acid forms alongwith dehydroxymonacolin and compactin (mevastatin).The prescription drug lovastatin, identical to monacolin K, is the principal statin produced by Monascus purpureus.
17. Tissue cultue: This is also a latest method of crop improvement. Besides also used in manufacture of antibodies, alkaloids, and dyes (like shikonin, a red dye used in silk industry and in treatment of burns is obtained from culture of cells of lithospermum root)
18. Single cell proteins (SCP): This terms was first used in 1966. But this term is misleading now a days because it denotes not only the isolated cell protein but it is used for any microbial biomass from uni-multi-cellular bacteri, yeast, algae or filamentous fungi which can be used as food or food additives. In general, microbial biomass contains 45-55 % protein, though in some bacteria, upto 80% protein content present, Large scale production of microbial biomass (SCP) has advantages over traditional methods of producing proteins as microbes have high rate of multiplicationm, have high protein content, can utilize large number of different carbon sources (waste products also) and microbial biomass production is independent od seasonal and climatic variation. Most commonly used microbes are Spirulina (blue green alga), Chlorella (green alga), Saccharomycopsis) lipolytica (fungus), mushrooms, etc.
Methlophilus methylotrophus bacteria have been investigated for use in single cell protein production. These bacteria have a generation time of about 2 hours and mainly used in animal feed as bacteria, in general produce a more favourable protein composition than yeast or fungi. Therefore, the large quantities of SCP animal feed using bacteria. The resulting product appears pinkish white, is odourless, tasteless and non-toxic which consists of about 65-75% protein of balanced amino acids composition.
Probiotics are live microorganism thought to be beneficial to the host organism. This term has been derived from latin ('pro -for+ biotics, derived from noun 'Bios-Life). According to currently adopted definitions by FAO/WHO, probiotics are live microorganism which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefits onthe host. Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria are the most common types of microbes used as probiotics, but certain yeasts and bacilli may also be helpful. Probiotics are commonly consumed as part of fermented foods with specially added active live cultures; such as yoghurt, soyyohurt or as dietary supplements. At the start of 20th century, probiotics were thought to beneficially affect the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance, thus inhibiting pathogens and toxins producing bacteria.
19.Sewage treatment and methane production using microbial systems: Conventional sewage treatement involves the use of the naturally developing micro-organisms within the sewage treatement system. Now a days the sewage is onoculated with a specific micro organisms, specially selected for that particular sewage treatement process. These organisms are called ' Starter cultures'
A strain of Pseudomonas putida containing plasmids has been developed, which degrade octane, xylene, metaxylene and camphor.
Methane is produced during anaerobic decomposition of sewage and other organic wastes by bacterias. The methane is collected and used as fuel in many countries.
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