Biotechnology -Implementation of Biotechnology

The Biotech On web is a blog for those student who are interested to make their career in food technology or biotechnology.Food technology is the study about food processing and their key terms,In food technology we know about various branches of food study.Today biotech is one of the most successful choice of science student. Many Universities offered course named "Food Chemistry".In my opinion food technology is okay for teaching purpose, but today many multinational company which deals in food product that offered job of successfully qualified in graduation (food chemistry) with handsome package.

This is recent branch of biology. Biology in relation to technology is called biotechnology or biotechnology is defined as application of living organisms or their processes in manufacturing industries.

Study of use of living and the substances produced due to their activites is called biotechnology.
Mostly micro-organisms are used in many industries as alcohol, enzymes, vaccines, vitamins, antibiotics, organic acids, etc. So, biotechnology is controlled use of microbes for benefits of human being. In this science, principles of biochemistry, molecular biology and microbiology are mostly  used. Some important examples of biotechnology products are:

1. Alcohol: It is result of yeast fermentations, which is the incomplete oxidation of complex organic compounds with the help of enzyme produced by yeast (invertase and Zymase)

In the middle of the 19th century, Louis Pasteur reported that alcohol,beer and butter milk are the result of yeast fermentations .Yeast fermentations is the basis of baking as well as brewing industries, besides preparations of fermented foods like idli, dosa, etc. Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly called baker's yeast or brewer's, is a saprophytic unicellular ascomycetes fungus growing on sugary solution.  

Some other common products of yeast fermentations are:
Beer - It is produced from Hordeum vulgare (barley) malt and alcohol content is 4-8%.

Wine: Produced from grapes by fermentations and alcohol content is 10%- 20 %

Brandy :- Produced by distillation of wine and alcohol content is 43% - 57%.

Gin: Produced from fermented European rye, i.e, Secale cereale.

Rum : Produced from molasses of sugarcane and alcohol content is 40%.

Thus the type of the alcohol depends upon medium and agent causing fermentations. The species involved in above case are: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. ellipsoides, etc.

2. Organic acids: Some organic acids are produced by fermentation caused by fungi and bacteria.Some important are:

a. Lactic acids: Produced by fermentation of corn starch, molasses, potato, whey, etc, by Lactobacillus bulgaricus, L. delbrueckii and streptococcus lactis.

b. Acetic acids(Vinegar ): Produced by two step fermentation of sugarcane juice by yeast and Acetobacter aceti bacteria.

c. Citric acid: Produced by aerobic fermentations of sucrose in beet molasses by Aspergillus niger fungus.

d. Gluconic acid: Produced during oxidation of glucose by fungi like Aspergillus, penicillium, Mucor, etc.

e. Fumaric acid : Produced from sugar by activity of Rhizopus nigricans (bread mould)

3. Enzymes: The term 'enzyme' was first of all used by William Kuhne (meaning----in yeast). Enzymes are the organic substances which enhance the rate of biochemical reactions (without themselves undergoing any change). Enzyme can also be used outside the cell  to catalyse some specific biochemical reactions to manufacture many industrial products. Out of total over 2200 enzymes known today,only a few are used in industries, medicines and food which are as follows.

a. Proteases or proteolytic enzymes: obtained from Aspergillus oryzae and Bacillus subtilis and are used in detergents to remove some proteinaceous stains  on clothes.

b. Amylases: Obtained from Bacillus subtilis. Aspergillus niger.A oryzae, etc. and are used in beer and bread making. Also used for softening starched clothes.

c. TPA (Tissue plasminogen activator): This enzyme is specifically used in heart patients to dissolve blood clots.

d.papain: This protein digesting enzyme obtained latex of papaya,is used for making meat tender.

e. Lactase: Obtained Saccharomyces fragilis and Torula cremori andused for making cheese from pasteurized milk and also for preventing lactose crystals in ice-cream.

f. Invertase: Obtained from Saccharomyces cerevisae  and is used to prevent sandliness in diary products.

g. Thrombin: obtained from beef plasma and used for blood clotting in surgical operations.

h. Renin (Rennet) : Danish chemist Christian Hensen (1874) first obtained it from calf stomach and used for cheese formation

i. Pectinases: Obtained from Asper gillus lucherisis and used for destruction of penicillin action.

j. Cellulase: Obtained from Myrothecium verrucaria and used in production of dextrin and fructose.

Enzymes are more fragile than inorganic catalysts.Further these are more expensive and are rapidly deactivated at high temperatures.Stabilisation of enjymesis done by enzyme immobilization,which is done by fixing it to solid support,entrapping in a gel,cross-linking the enzyme molecules or by encapsulation of enzymes in small artificial cells.This immobilisation protects enzymes against attack by proteases.Further immobilizsed enzymes can be easily separated from reaction mixture at the end of reaction and then can be reused.

4.Vitamines:Vitamines are the organic compounds,provided to the body with diet and are required for some biochemical processes in very small amounts.Vitamines were discovered by C.FUNK(1911) and different types of diseases
(like beri-2,scurvy,rickets,night blindness,etc)are produced as a result of vitamines deficiency.Some microbes are good source of vitamines and the first microbiologically produced vitamin are vitamin c (ascorbic acid) during this fermentaion with a wild strain of bacteria (by Gyorgy).After this different microbes are being exploited for commercial production of different vitamines.Some important examples of microbes-produced vitamines are:

a.Riboflavin:(vit.B2):It is synthesised for industrial purposes by fermentation with a filamentous yeast, Ashbya, gossypii. The main sources of vit. B2 are cereals, yeast, leafy vegetables,milk,etc. It is precursor of FMN and FAD, which act as coenzymes for dehydrogenases enzymes.

b.Cobalamine (vit. B2): This vitamin is of animal protein origin like liver, meat, fish. It is not present in vegetarian diet and its deficiency causes pernicious anaemia. Now a days this vitamin is being produced by fermentation using Pseudomonas denitrificans, Bacillus coagulans, B.megatherium and propionic acid bacteria, i.e., Propionibacteria.

c. Precursor of vitamin A, i.e carotene is produced by fermentation using Blakslea trispora.

d. Precursor of vitamin C, i.e. L - sorbose by Glucanobacter oxidans.

5. Antibiotics: These are the substances of microbial origin and having antimicrobial activity or these are the chemical substances secreted by one micro-organisms, which inhibit or check the growth of other micro organisms.First antibiotic discovered was penicillin(wonder drug), from penicillium notatum by sir Alexander Fleming (1928) However, the term 'antibiotic' was given by waksman  (1942). Waksman himself discovered two antobiotics i.e, Actinomycin (1941) and Streptomycin (1942) . Main sources of antibiotics are fungi,
bacteria and actinomycetes and about 7,000 antibiotics are known at this time. There are two main groups of antibiotics.

a. Broad spectrum antibiotics are those which inhibit the growth of many pathogenic species, differing from one another in their structure.

b.Narrow spectrum antibiotics are those antibiotics which inhibit the growth of a specific pathagenic species.
Different antibiotics have different modes of action, e.g., by destruction of cell membrane, inhibition of cell wall synthesis or checking protein synthesis or inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis.

Common antibiotics are penicillin . streptomycin, Terramycin, Aureomycin, Chloromycetin or Chloramphinicol, Griseofulvin, Neomycin, Erythromycin, Polymyxin, Subtelin, etc.

Streptomyces griseus strains are known to be producers of 32 different structural types of bioactive compounds (antibiotics)

Antibiotic of algal origin is Chlorellin and of lichen origin is Usnic acid.

6. Yoghurt: It is a special diet, which is prepared by fermentations of concentrated milk first with Lactobacillus bulgaricus and streptococcus thermophillus at 40-46 degree C for 4 hrs. and then fermentations with yeast.

7.Gibberellins: This plant growth hormone or phytohormone is obtained from a fungus called Fusarium moniliformae (or Giberella fujikuroi). This was isolated by Yabuta and Sumuki (1939). At this time, over 52 gibberellins have been discovered  from different plants.

8.Steriods: Steriods are molecular weight fatty compounds, which are having one 5-carbon ring and three 6-carbon rings. Steriods are of wide distribution in both plants and animals . Chlolesterol is one of the most important steriods of animals, which is a precursor of animal hormones (steriods hormones) like progesterone and estrogen (female sex hormones) and testosterone (male sex hormone).

Progesterone is precursor of 4 different useful steriods and the micro-organisms used in this conversion are Rhizopus arrhizus, R. Stolonifer (R. nigricans), Curvularia lunata (all fungi) and a bacterium streptomyces argenteolus.

9. Insulin: Insulin is  a hormone of protein nature (51 amino acids),made of 2 polypeptide chains having 21 and 30 amino acids respectively and joined by disulphide nonds. This hormone is produced be cells of 'Islands of Langerhans' of pancreas and is responsible for controlling blood sugar level. Deficiency of this insulin leads to a disease called diabetes mellitus. Insulin supplied from outside can cure this disease.
Banting and Best(1921) first of all isolated insulin from dog's pancreas and used it for curing diabetes patients, Insulin is now obtained from pancreas of slaughtered pigs and cattle.This insulin slightly differs from man's insulin and effectively controls diabetes.
By using genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology, insulin producing genes from human beings have been transferred into E. coli bacteria, which produce insulin called 'Humuline' for clinical use. This type of synthetic insulin was produced by an American pharmaceutical frim Eli-Lily on july 5, 1983.

10. Interferons: Interferons (antiviral proteins) were produced by Charles Weismann of Zurich University through recombinant DNA technology in E.coli in 1980.

11.Monoclonal antibodies: Antibodies are the specialized proteins, which are produced inside the host body in response to foreign substances called antigens (mostly protein or polysaccharides) and provides immunity to the host against antigens. Antibodies are produced in Lymph nodes, spleen and liver.

Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) are the specialized antibodies, which are specific to only one type of antigens. The concept of monoclonal antobodies was put forward by georges Kohler and Cesal Milstein in 1974 and these antibodies are produced outside the body by hybrid cell culture technique, known as Hybridoma technology. For this technology, Kohler and Milstein were awarded Nobel Prize in 1984.

In this technique, the antigens (against which antibodies are needed ) are injected into rat is removed and from spleen, some lymphocytes (which are responsible for antibody production) are isolated. These lymphocytes are mixed  with myeloma cells (tumour cells isolated from cancer of bone marrow). Some of these lymphocytes  and myeloma cells fuse together to form hybridoma cells (by somatogamous fusion). These hybridoma cells have capacity of antibody production  (of lymphocytes) and rapid cell division (of cancer cells). These hybridoma cells in cultural conditions produce large quantities of specific and pure (monoclonal) antobodies, which are separated and used in cure of different diseases.


12. Vaccines: Production of antibodies against antigens, is the basis of immunity. Vaccine in fact is dilute dose (suspension) of antigens, which is used for developing artificial or acquired immunity . The process of inoculation of vaccine is known as vaccination  and Louis pasteur (1850) is responsible for understanding the basis of vaccination  and immunization. (Edward Jenner 1970, however made earlier studies in relation to small pox). A vaccine contains either weakened (polio, smallpox and measles vaccines)or even killed pathogens( typhoid vaccine ) which have still antigens to induce antibody production. In some cases (like botulism and tetanus), toxins produced by pathogens serve as vaccines . A lare number of vaccines (called first generation vaccines) against different viral and bacterial diseases have been produced.

In recent years, some new vaccines called second generations and third generations vaccines have been developed . Second generations vaccines are those, which are produced by recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering . e.g., vaccine for herpes virus and Hepatitis B. Third generations vaccines are produced synthetically or are synthesized vaccines, e.g., for feline leukemia virus and foot  and mouth diseases  virus.

13. Amino acids : An important basic amino acid, lysine is produced from diaminopimelic acid. (constituent of cell wall of bacteria, e.g., E.coli by activity of bacterium Enterobacter


15. Some other food products : Cheese is produced by activity of different species of lactobacillus and Streptococcus.
Penicillium camembertii and P. roquefortii are used to give flavour to cheese (camembert cheese and roquefort cheese).
Similiarly, butter is produced from cream by activity of streptococcus lactis and Leuconostoc species.

15.Dextran : Sucrose by activity of Leuconostoc mesenteroides bacteria, gives rise to a complex polysaccharide called dextran, which is used in plasma tranfusions.

16. Cholesterol lowering statins: Monascus purpureus (red yeast ) is a species of mould that is purplish red in colour and is known by the names ang-khak rice mould, corn silage mould, maize silage mould, and rice kernel discoloration. This fungus is most  important because of its use in the form of red yeast rice and in the production of certain fermented foods in china. However, discovery of production of cholesterol  statins bythe mould has prompted research into its possible medical uses. It produces a number of statins. The naturally occuring lovastatins and analogues are monacolins K, L,J and also occur in their hydroxyl acid forms alongwith dehydroxymonacolin and compactin (mevastatin).The prescription drug lovastatin, identical to monacolin K, is the principal statin produced by Monascus purpureus.

17. Tissue cultue: This is also a latest method of crop improvement. Besides also used in manufacture of antibodies, alkaloids, and dyes (like shikonin, a red dye used in silk industry and in treatment of burns is obtained from culture of cells of lithospermum root)

18. Single cell proteins (SCP): This terms was first used in 1966. But this term is misleading now a days because it denotes not only the isolated cell protein but it is used for any microbial biomass from uni-multi-cellular bacteri, yeast, algae or filamentous fungi which can be used as food or food additives. In general, microbial biomass contains 45-55 % protein, though in some bacteria, upto 80% protein content present, Large scale production of microbial biomass (SCP) has advantages over traditional methods of producing proteins as microbes have high rate of multiplicationm, have high protein content, can utilize large number of different carbon sources (waste products also) and microbial biomass production is independent od seasonal and climatic variation. Most commonly used microbes are Spirulina (blue green alga), Chlorella (green alga), Saccharomycopsis) lipolytica (fungus), mushrooms, etc.

Methlophilus methylotrophus bacteria have been investigated for use in single cell protein production. These bacteria have a generation time of about 2 hours and mainly used in animal feed as bacteria, in general produce a more favourable protein composition than yeast or fungi. Therefore, the large quantities of SCP animal feed using bacteria. The resulting product appears pinkish white, is odourless, tasteless and non-toxic which consists of about 65-75% protein of balanced amino acids composition.

Probiotics are live microorganism thought to be beneficial to the host organism. This term has been derived from latin ('pro -for+ biotics, derived from noun 'Bios-Life). According to currently adopted definitions by FAO/WHO, probiotics are live microorganism which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefits onthe host. Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria are the most common types of microbes used as probiotics, but certain yeasts and bacilli may also be helpful. Probiotics are commonly consumed as part of fermented foods with specially added active live cultures; such as yoghurt, soyyohurt or as dietary supplements. At the start of 20th century, probiotics were thought to beneficially affect the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance, thus inhibiting pathogens and toxins producing bacteria.

19.Sewage treatment and methane production using microbial systems: Conventional sewage treatement involves the use of the naturally developing micro-organisms within the sewage treatement system. Now a days the sewage is onoculated with a specific micro organisms, specially selected for that particular sewage treatement process. These organisms are called ' Starter cultures'

A strain of Pseudomonas putida containing plasmids has been developed, which degrade octane, xylene, metaxylene and camphor.

Methane is produced during anaerobic decomposition of sewage and other organic wastes by bacterias. The methane is collected and used as fuel in many countries.

Fringe benefit of Biotechnology

The application of Biotechnology to unravel the atmosphereal issues within the environment and within the ecosystems is named Environmental Biotechnology. it's applied and it's wont to study the natural atmosphere. consistent with the international Society for atmosphereal Biotechnology the environmental Biotechnology is outlined as AN environment that helps to develop, with efficiency use and regulate the biological systems and forestall the atmosphere from pollution or from contamination of land, air ANd water have work with efficiency to sustain an atmosphere – friendly Society. In alternative words, it may be outlined because the best use of the natural resources through the plants, animals, bacteria, fungi and alga so as to supply the energy that comes from the resources that area unit natural like daylight, wind, air, waves (renewal in a position energy), food and nutrients. The best use of the these natural resources may be done by re-cycling and utilizing the waste from these resources and realize distinctive ways that of making methodes to utilize the waste and wherever the waste of every method created becomes the feedstock for one more process.

Application and advantages of Environmental Biotechnology:

Applications:
There area unit 5 major differing kinds of Applications of Environmental Biotechnology. they're as follows:

a) Biomarker:
This type of Application of environmental Biotechnology offers response to a chemical that helps to live the extent of injury caused or the exposure of the harmful or the pollution impact caused. In alternative word, Biomarker may also be known as because the Biological markers the foremost use of this applications helps to relate the affiliation between the oils and its sources.

b) Bioenergy:
The collective purport of Biogas, biomass, fuels, and H area unit known as the Bioenergy. the employment of this application of atmosphere Biotechnology is within the industrial, domestic and area sectors. As per the recent would like it's finished that {the would like|the necessity|the requirement} of fresh energy out of those fuels and alternative routes of finding clean energy is that the need of the hour. one amongst the pioneer samples of inexperienced energy area unit the wastes collected from the organic and biomass wastes; these wastes facilitate use to over the pollution problems caused within the atmosphere. The Biomass energy provide has become a distinguished importance in each country.

c) Bio-remediation:
The method of improvement up the risky substances into non-toxic compounds is named the Bioremediation process. This method is majorly used for any quite technology pack up that uses the natural microorganisms.

d) Bio transformation:
The changes that occur within the biology of the atmosphere that area unit changes of the complicated compound to straightforward non-toxic to harmful or the opposite means spherical is named the bio transformation method. it's employed in the producing sector wherever harmful substances area unit born-again to Bi-products.

Benefits:
The major advantages of environmental biotechnology area unit it helps to stay the environment safe and clean for the employment of the long run generations. It helps the organisms and also the engineers to search out helpful ways that of obtaining tailored to the changes within the atmosphere and keep the atmosphere clean and inexperienced. The good thing about atmospherically biotechnology helps United States to avoid the employment of risky pollutants and wastes that have an effect on the natural resources and also the environment. the event of the society ought to be exhausted such the way that it helps to safeguard the environment and conjointly helps United States to development it.

The environmental biotechnology includes a role to play within the removal of the pollutants. it's turning into a plus for the scientists and also the environmentalists to search out ways that to convert the waste to re-useable product. The applications of environmental biotechnology are getting a benefiting issue for the environment; the applications includes – genetics, proteomics, bioinformatics, sequencing and imaging processes area unit providing massive amounts of knowledge and new ways that to improvise the atmosphere and shield the atmosphere.

Bio-remediation:
The branch of Biotechnology is named Bioremediation and it deals with the issues associated with the atmosphere. the employment of various forms of contaminants and fungi area unit wont to the clean the atmosphere and it plays a awfully very important role to stay the pollutants off from the atmosphere. The microorganism area unit thought of jointly of the very important microbes since they break the dead organisms or the materials into helpful organic matter and nutrients. As per the analysis not all the contaminants may be touching the atmosphere may be destroyed victimization the method of bio remediation eg. Lead and metallic element aren't the contaminants that may be rotten by the microorganisms.

The process of Bio remediation takes place in two conditions – aerobic and anaerobic conditions. once the microbes would like O to perform its method is within the case of aerobic condition; if they will ample quantity of O they’ll be able to provide most quantity of water and carbon through the conversion of contaminants and toxins. just in case of anaerobic conditions the microbes perform their work while not the presence of O the chemical compounds gift within the soil helps the anaerobic to perform its duties with efficiency.

Types of Bioremediation:

a) Mycoremediation:
This is a kind of Bioremediation; fungi area unit used for the method of remotion. the employment of plant mycelia in bioremediation is named Mycoremediation. The role of the plant within the scheme is to perform the work of braking down the organic substances into abundant smaller and easier materials. The plant structure helps in braking down the substances and that they secrete extracellular enzymes and acids that brakes polymer and cellulose; these area unit building blocks of plant product. The key perform of Mycoremediation is to focus on the correct plant species for a selected waste material.

b) Phytoremediation:
The direct use of the inexperienced plants and their microorganisms wont to balance or decrease the contaminated soils, sludges, sediments, surface water or well water is named Phyto remediation. As per the traditional Greek term phyto means that plant and remedian means that restoring balance. this kind of bioremediation explains the way of treating the environmental issues with the assistance of plants. The part of Phytoremediation consists of contaminated soil, water, and air that area unit contaminated and also the plants area unit able to contain and eliminate the metals, pesticides, solvents, explosives, crude oil.

C) microorganism Remediation:
The use of microorganisms to degrade organic contaminants and to bind the employment of metals in less believable type is named microorganism rectification. – Aerobic and Anaerobic conditions. once the microbes would likeOxygen to perform its method is within the case of aerobic condition; if they will ample quantity of Oxygen they’ll be able to provide most quantity of water and carbon through the conversion of contaminants and toxins. just in case of anaerobic conditions the microbes perform their work while not the presence of Oxygen the chemical compounds gift within the soil helps the anaerobic to perform its duties with efficiency.

Concerning Molecular biotechnology

The study of nucleic acids and proteins exploitation the research lab techniques is named Molecular Biotechnology. It involves a larger scope for varied types of analysis and analysis. the varied types of analysis concerned ar medicine, biology, genetics, cell Biology and biology. The importance of Molecular Biotechnology is changing into an impending method within the field of Agriculture and our surroundings and therefore the importance of Molecular biotechnology is completed by the complete world as per the recent study knowledge. it's the flexibility to transfer genetic data between totally different organisms. the most goal of Molecular Biotechnology is to grasp the various biological processes concerned and creation of wise merchandise. The human ordination project has opened new gates for the biological progress, development within the pharmaceutical business to make innovative medicines to cure diseases and conjointly varied types of treatments and to improvise the present processes concerned in creating medicines within the pharma domain.

Past of Biotechnology

The Study of Macro molecules and molecule mechanisms that has an look within the living organisms is named Molecular Biotechnology. The molecular Biotechnology's main aim is to target the structure and therefore the operate of the factor, nature of the factor, replication of the factor, expressions and mutations of the genes. The construct of Molecular Biotechnology was introduced from the year 1930 ANd 1940 and it had been not that impending at the initial stages of its introduction it solely received an importance within the years Nineteen Fifties and Sixties. the employment of Molecular Biotechnology was done by geneticists, structural chemists and physicists. Francis Henry Compton Crick introduced himself as a biologist and delineated  additional as “a mixture of a crystallographer”.

Key benefits of Molecular Biotechnology:

There ar sure reasons with regards to the advantages of molecular biotechnology; the advantages ar associated with the surroundings. It helps in inspecting the surroundings and it helps in observance the requirements through Molecular biotechnology, it makes the consultants to grasp the environmental, management wants and therefore the risk concerned and evaluates the chance issue with efficiency. Any damages to soil or water it helps to produce treatment. With the assistance of introduction of Molecular applied science and inexperienced Technology the examination is completed additional promptly and with efficiency. just in case of any environmental disputes the method of Molecular Biotechnology plays a crucial role to look at the sort of dispute and helps to produce an acceptable answer to the dispute.

Biotech in Animal agriculture

Biotechnology- Animal Agriculture

There is an enormous impact of Animal Agriculture on the surroundings and therefore the climatically changes. Animal agriculture consumes plenty of our natural resources and helps within the method of deforestation. world organization within the year 2006 came up with a study stating that there's eighteen of contribution globally by the animal agricultural sector. the main drawbacks of animal agriculture square measure that it produces immense amount of animal wastes, damages the water and causes pollution and conjointly pollution. This results in a forceful modification within the climate and therefore the surroundings. per the recent study at each stage of production of raw food like egg, meat and milk merchandise has an effect on the climatically changes and this results in climatically crisis because of the discharge of greenhouse gases within the atmosphere.


There is a serious transformation in biotechnology because of the fast changes and advancement in Animal Agriculture. It involves sure technologies so as to improvise the needs; the assorted styles of technology embody biotechnology, genetic modification, transgenic, varied polymer techniques and therefore the method of biological research. The EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) written a scientific study on the problems with regards to the protection and health of animals, quality of food and therefore the aspects of the surroundings associated with the method of biological research. solely the food created from healthy cloned animals aren't any less safe than the food merchandise created from the bred animals.

Biotechnology- Bio piracy (Bio colonialism)

Biopiracy may be defined as, " The theft of various natural products  (of plants and animals) and then selling them by getting patents or intellectual property rights, without giving any benefits (financial or technological) back to the host country or country of origin."e.g., Biopiracy of Neem, Haldi Basmati rice, etc.

Biopiracy of Neem: Patenting of seed oil from indian Neem (Azadirachta indica fam. Meliaceae) by US Department of agriclulture (USDA) and W.R Grace (Columbia) in 1992, was a case of biopiracy (patent No. 436357 BY). For generations, Indians had used Neem oil as a medicine and pest controlling agent. So the US patent on Neem had created a great controversy. In May, 2000 after a long legal battle, the European patent office (EPO) revoked the patent of USDA and W.R Grace.

Biopiracy of Haldi
In march 1995 University of Missisippi Medical Centre (USA) had taken patent on turmeric powder (curcuma domestica fam. Zingiberacease), as a wound healing agent. But on August 13, 1997, this patent was revoked due to objections of CISR because for a long time, turmeric powder is used as a wound healing agent in india and it was not a discovery of US patent.
Similiar is the case of biopiracy of Basmati rice.

Misuse of intellectual Property Rights (IPR) can lead to biopiracy, e.g,. University of georgia Scientists explore the Oxaca state of Mexico for indigenous plants of medicinal/pharmaceutical potential and patent any plant with promise. The corporations gain, but people who have used it for ages lose it. This is a major threat to the treasure of traditional knowledge in india. South asia.

The problems of ownership and concerns over right of countries were discussed in a documents known as Convention on biological diversity (CBD) in first Earth summit, Rio de janeiro (1992, brazil). CBD provides for sovereign rights for individuals countries on their genetic resources. USA and EU strongly opposed the view held by developing countries that the sovereign rights of the countries of origin of PGRs (Plant Genetic Resources) held in ex situ collections be recognized. These developed countries have been successful in achieving approval for a call to strengthen co-operation to sustain ex situ collections and recognizing that states have sovereign rights over their own PGRs (PGRs stored on their territory irrespective of the territory of origin ) Thus, recognition  of sovereign rights of the countries of origin of PGRs available in gene banks in the developed countries has been rejected by USA ans EU. Therefore the companies present in Northern countries are dealing directly with agencies where PGRs are located rather than dealing with countries  of origin of those PGRs A pharmaceutical industry can purchase tropical PGRs from botanical gardens located in temperate countries. According to international  Association of botanical, 50% of world's vascular plants are available in botanical gardens and 75% of these gardens are present in developed countries on the North. The pharmaceutical industry is exploring the possibility of getting rights for chemical analysis of collections at these gardens for development of new drugs. e.g., Pfizer pharmaceutical Co. (USA) has collaboration with New York botanical gardens and through it has connections with botanical gardens in Hawaii. This is also a case of bio piracy through gene banks and botanical gardens.

Biotechnology - Bio safety issues

Bio patent
With emergence of modern biotechnology, one important issue raised which is the legal characterization and treatment of trade related biotechnological processes and products, commonly called intellectual property . In simple words, intellectual property is a 'product of mind'.
In biotechnology,one of the most important examples of intellectual property is the processes and products, which result from development of genetic engineering techniques through use of restriction enzymes to create recombinant DNA. The rights to protect this property are called intellectual property rights (IPR). Intellectual property rights include rights relating to literary, artistic, scientific works, inventions in all fields, industrial designs, trademarks, commercial names, etc. Intellectual property rights include patents, Copyright, trade marks and trade secrets.

A patents is a government granted and secured legal right to prevent other from making, using or selling the inventions covered by patent. A patent is a personal property which can be licensed or sold like any other property.

Under USA law, a patent means grant of right to exclude other from making, using or selling an inventions for a 17years period. The Indian Patent Act(1970) allows process patents but not product patents. The duration of the patent in india is five years from date of grant of patent or seven years from date of filling the application, whichever is less.

Patenable subject matter should meet 3 requirements as utility, novelty and statutory subject matter. Difference countries have different patent laws and these can be modified from time to time.Complaints of infringement of these patents are decided by courts in accordance with patent law of that country.

Patenting of life forms or biological material is called biopatenting and such a patent is called biopatent. Before, 1980, life forms could not be patended and the discovery of oil-eating bacterium (genetically engineered Pseudomonas) by a non-resident indian scientist Dr. Chakraborty (called 'super bug', used for cleaning up oil spills) was first to be patended under standard US patent (i.e., first biopatent). genetically engineered mouse called 'oncomouse' (carrying a human cancer gene) was protected by a US patent in 1988 and this was another milestone in patenting of life forms or biopatents. Issue of biopatents has also been recently discussed in india.

In plant biotechnology, live plants, naturally occuring  microbes, micro propagation, tissue and organ culture techniques, biological controlo pests or hybrid varieties cannot be protected using patents. New crop varieties cannot be patended but transgenic animals and plants can be patended.

The genes and DNA sequences which normally fulfill the requirement of patents have no difficulty in getting patent protection. In 1991, the National Institute of Health (NIH). USA, applied to patent some DNA sequences useful in human gene mapping. This application was opposed on the grounds that it will slow down  the flow of scientific information and stop international co-operation and it failed because of cost.  A second application on DNA patenting by a private company was turned down on the grounds that the research has been done with public money. But in 1997, th eUS patent office agreed to allow patenting of gene strands with no biological function  but likely to have indutrial use. The result is that big academic labs and companies have been sequencing and patenting sequences in order tosecure private investment. In order to distinguish  DNA sequences from their natural counterparts (which cannot be patended), a patent application must state tht the invention has been purified or isolated or is part of recombinant  molecule or vector. Some pharmaceutical companies and NIH (National Institute of Health ) are compiling public databases of sequences toensure public acces. Further donor content is a concern in human DNA patenting .

Terminator technology for seed protection:
A patent under the title'control of plant Gene Expression' was issued on March 3, 1998 jointly to delta and pineland (D and PL) and the US department of Agriculture (USDA). A canada based NGO, RAFI (Rural Advancement Foundation International) dubbed the technology as 'Terminator technology', as they beleived that it will be used to ensure that farmers may not be able to save the seeds from their harvest for replanation. The inventors of this technology have already applied for the patents in atleast 78 countries. Indian governemnt has banned the entry of any seed material into the country that may carry terminator gene and has decided not to grant patent to D and PL for terminator technology.

Patended method for terminator technology is based on a gene that produces a protein that is toxic to plant and thus does not allow the seed to germinate (RIP gene).

Arther Dunkel's Suggestion (1991, 92): Arther Dunkel's then director General, GATT ( General Agreement of Tariff's and Trade ) gave some suggestions for india, which include:

i. India will have to patent laws by 2003 to finally open the agriculture sector for patended biotechnology

ii. India will not be able to give any kind of subsidies for production of oil seeds or pulses as the international prices of these commodities  are lower than domestic price.

iii. India  will have to introduce product patents and to increase in duration of patents.

iv. India will have to open its markets to foreign patent holders.

Biotechnology - Major application

1.Monoclonal antibodies: Antibodies are the specialized proteins, which are produced inside the host body in response  to foreign substances called antigens (mostly protein or polysaccharides) and provides immunity to the host against antigens. Antibodies are produced in Lymph nodes, spleen and liver.

Monoclonal antibodies (Mabs) are the specialized antibodies, which are specific to only one type of antigens. The concept of monoclonal antobodies was put forward by georges Kohler and Cesal Milstein in 1974 and these antibodies are produced outside the body by hybrid cell culture technique, known as Hybridoma technology. For this technology, Kohler and Milstein were awarded Nobel Prize in 1984.

In this technique, the antigens (against which antibodies are needed ) are injected into rat is removed and from spleen, some lymphocytes (which are responsible for antibody production) are isolated. These lymphocytes are mixed  with myeloma cells (tumour cells isolated from cancer of bone marrow). Some of these lymphocytes  and myeloma cells fuse together to form hybridoma cells (by somatogamous fusion). These hybridoma cells have capacity of antibody production  (of lymphocytes) and rapid cell division (of cancer cells). These hybridoma cells in cultural conditions produce large quantities of specific and pure (monoclonal) antobodies, which are separated and used in cure of different diseases.


2. Vaccines: Production of antibodies against antigens, is the basis of immunity. Vaccine in fact is dilute dose (suspension) of antigens, which is used for developing artificial or acquired immunity . The process of inoculation of vaccine is known as vaccination  and Louis pasteur (1850) is responsible for understanding the basis of vaccination  and immunization. (Edward Jenner 1970, however made earlier studies in relation to small pox). A vaccine contains either weakened (polio, smallpox and measles vaccines)or even killed pathogens( typhoid vaccine ) which have still antigens to induce antibody production. In some cases (like botulism and tetanus), toxins produced by pathogens serve as vaccines . A lare number of vaccines (called first generation vaccines) against different viral and bacterial diseases have been produced.

In recent years, some new vaccines called second generations and third generations vaccines have been developed . Second generations vaccines are those, which are produced by recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering . e.g., vaccine for herpes virus and Hepatitis B. Third generations vaccines are produced synthetically or are synthesized vaccines, e.g., for feline leukemia virus and foot  and mouth diseases  virus.

3. Amino acids : An important basic amino acid, lysine is produced from diaminopimelic acid. (constituent of cell wall of bacteria, e.g., E.coli by activity of bacterium Enterobacter


4. Some other food products : Cheese is produced by activity of different species of lactobacillus and Streptococcus.
Penicillium camembertii and P. roquefortii are used to give flavour to cheese (camembert cheese and roquefort cheese).
Similiarly, butter is produced from cream by activity of streptococcus lactis and Leuconostoc species.

5.Dextran : Sucrose by activity of Leuconostoc mesenteroides bacteria, gives rise to a complex polysaccharide called dextran, which is used in plasma tranfusions.

6. Cholesterol lowering statins: Monascus purpureus (red yeast ) is a species of mould that is purplish red in colour and is known by the names ang-khak rice mould, corn silage mould, maize silage mould, and rice kernel discoloration. This fungus is most  important because of its use in the form of red yeast rice and in the production of certain fermented foods in china. However, discovery of production of cholesterol  statins bythe mould has prompted research into its possible medical uses. It produces a number of statins. The naturally occuring lovastatins and analogues are monacolins K, L,J and also occur in their hydroxyl acid forms alongwith dehydroxymonacolin and compactin (mevastatin).The prescription drug lovastatin, identical to monacolin K, is the principal statin produced by Monascus purpureus.

7. Tissue cultue: This is also a latest method of crop improvement. Besides also used in manufacture of antibodies, alkaloids, and dyes (like shikonin, a red dye used in silk industry and in treatment of burns is obtained from culture of cells of lithospermum root)

8. Single cell proteins (SCP): This terms was first used in 1966. But this term is misleading now a days because it denotes not only the isolated cell protein but it is used for any microbial biomass from uni-multi-cellular bacteri, yeast, algae or filamentous fungi which can be used as food or food additives. In general, microbial biomass contains 45-55 % protein, though in some bacteria, upto 80% protein content present, Large scale production of microbial biomass (SCP) has advantages over traditional methods of producing proteins as microbes have high rate of multiplicationm, have high protein content, can utilize large number of different carbon sources (waste products also) and microbial biomass production is independent od seasonal and climatic variation. Most commonly used microbes are Spirulina (blue green alga), Chlorella (green alga), Saccharomycopsis) lipolytica (fungus), mushrooms, etc.

Methlophilus methylotrophus bacteria have been investigated for use in single cell protein production. These bacteria have a generation time of about 2 hours and mainly used in animal feed as bacteria, in general produce a more favourable protein composition than yeast or fungi. Therefore, the large quantities of SCP animal feed using bacteria. The resulting product appears pinkish white, is odourless, tasteless and non-toxic which consists of about 65-75% protein of balanced amino acids composition.

Probiotics are live microorganism thought to be beneficial to the host organism. This term has been derived from latin ('pro -for+ biotics, derived from noun 'Bios-Life). According to currently adopted definitions by FAO/WHO, probiotics are live microorganism which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefits onthe host. Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria are the most common types of microbes used as probiotics, but certain yeasts and bacilli may also be helpful. Probiotics are commonly consumed as part of fermented foods with specially added active live cultures; such as yoghurt, soyyohurt or as dietary supplements. At the start of 20th century, probiotics were thought to beneficially affect the host by improving its intestinal microbial balance, thus inhibiting pathogens and toxins producing bacteria.

9.Sewage treatment and methane production using microbial systems: Conventional sewage treatement involves the use of the naturally developing micro-organisms within the sewage treatement system. Now a days the sewage is onoculated with a specific micro organisms, specially selected for that particular sewage treatement process. These organisms are called ' Starter cultures'

A strain of Pseudomonas putida containing plasmids has been developed, which degrade octane, xylene, metaxylene and camphor.

Methane is produced during anaerobic decomposition of sewage and other organic wastes by bacterias. The methane is collected and used as fuel in many countries.